Uganda's economy is predominantly agrarian; 36% of the GDP, 81% of the employed labor force, and 31% of export earnings are derived from the agricultural sector. A total of 6,810,000 ha (16,828,000 acres), or one-third of the land area, is under cultivation. Subsistence production remains the pattern; 70% of the area under cultivation is used to produce locally consumed food crops. Women provide over half of agricultural labor, traditionally focusing on food rather than cash crop production. The monetary value of market crops is exceeded by the estimated value of subsistence agriculture. Plantains, cassava, sweet potatoes, and bananas are the major food crops (MAAIF, 1995).
The poultry industry in Uganda is composed of 21.8 million birds (MAAIF 1998) and estimated to consist mainly of chicken comprising of 10 million birds. Over 90% of Ugandan chickens are indigenous stock reared under the Backyard system (Olaboro 1990), producing an average of 50 eggs per hen per year. The eggs are either for hatching chicks or used as table eggs. The other 10% consist of improved exotic commercial layers and broilers kept under the intensive system of husbandry mainly in urban areas. Intensively managed commercial enterprises comprise of small units of between 50 and 500 birds, the medium sized units of 500-1,000 birds; and few less than 5% of the large scale units of over 1,000 birds (Nsubuga 1985; Olaboro 1990). The village flocks consist of unimproved local chickens, typically 5-20 birds per family (Okot 1990). A part from chickens, other species of birds kept in rural areas include turkeys, ducks and guinea fowls and pigeons.
In Uganda, chicken is sold expensively compared to beef yet the reverse is true in developed countries. This is so because poultry farming is practiced at a small scale and poor management methods are employed (Dr. Maggie, 2004). Management of poultry by most farmers is improper in that are housed too densely, their environment becomes too hot during day or cold especially at night resulting in stress and birds are fed on incorrect feed composition causing deficient diseases. According to the records in the District Veterinary Officer’s office, information on poultry is scarce and as such poultry production in Najjembe Sub County is likely to be suffering from some of the many retrogressive factors that make the industry not realize its full potential. It is on the basis of such information that investigating the factors affecting the poultry production in this county is the core area of study in this investigation (MAAIF 1998).
Poultry production in Uganda is one of the areas of importance in the national economy and performs a major role in improving the nutritional status and income for many small holder farmers and landless communities through provision of eggs and meat for home consumption as well as surplus for the market. Over 70% of the poultry products and 20% of animal protein in Uganda comes from this sector. However, mortalities due to disease and predation have been so high that poultry production has been too low and irregular (Kitalyi, 2006).
Currently, the population of chicken in Uganda is composed of exotic commercial birds and the indigenous free range chicken. The population of rural indigenous chicken in the country has been estimated at 20 million or 80% of the national flock (MAAIF, 2005). Indigenous chicken are kept for meat, eggs, income and socio-cultural roles. In spite of the current level of introduction of exotic chickens in Uganda, local chickens have continued to be sold well in urban areas and demand for them still exceeds supply. Indigenous chickens are preferred to exotic ones because of their pigmentation, organoleptic qualities (taste and flavour), leanness and suitability for special dishes (Ssewanyana et al., 2001).
Poultry is one of the most important protein sources and income generating products in Najjembe Sub County. Unfortunately, the quantity of poultry and poultry products produced by farmers is small (Highlights CIAT Africa, 2002). No study has been carried out to identify the factors affecting poultry production in this area and there are no records about management factors affecting poultry production. Therefore, the study is carried out to identify the management factors limiting intensive poultry production and find the possible solutions.
The major objective of the study is to assess the production and marketing of local poultry in Najjembe Sub County.
The specific objectives include;
- To obtain base line data on the production of local chicken in Najjembe sub county.
- To describe the existing factors limiting the production of local chicken in Najjembe sub county.
- To establish the marketing channels for local poultry in Mukono.
- To calculate the marketing margins for local poultry.
- To determine the marketing channels for local poultry in Mukono.
- To determine the profitability
This study has the following potential benefits;
- To the local community in Uganda, the study will bring to light the various aspects relating to indigenous chicken such as the physical and production environment, in order to enable them improve on their production scale.
- The study will also highlight the marketing channel of indigenous chicken.
Intensive poultry production is based on special poultry breeds and constitutes 30% of the chicken in Africa. In intensive management system, producers aim at using recommended practices such as breed of choice, appropriate housing, feeding, health and disease control (Katalyi, 1998). The systems involved in intensive poultry production include; slated floor, deep litter and battery cage systems.
a) Slated floor system
Here birds are stocked at a rate of 0.09 square meter per bird and little labour is needed (Sainsbury, 1993). The floor is made of wire mesh and is raised to a height of 1m (Williamson and payne, 1984).
b) Deep litter system
Most farmers have adopted the deep litter system, however its effectiveness is hindered by poor house construction and spillage of water. Coffee husks, saw dust and wood shavings are used as litter. The success of deep litter system is dependent on decomposition of litter by bacteria (Sainabury, 1993). Litter keeps birds clean ann comfortable and absorbes moisture from droppings (Ensimiger, 1992).
c) Battery cage system
This is the most efficient because egg production and feed conversion efficiency are high. The disadvantages of this system are; it is costly to install, many eggs get cracks and poultry are highly predisposed to vermins and insects (William and Payne, 1984). The poultry house unit is constructed and fitted with battery cages that may be communal or individual, feacal matter collects on feacal trays underneath the battery cages that are cleaned manually (Portsmouth, 1989).
a) Ventilation and humidity
The main objective of efficient ventilation is to ensure an adequate supply of fresh air to the birds, remove unwanted gases and excess moisture. Poultry houses may be ventilated naturally or mechanically (Portsmouth, 1989).
Natural ventilation is commonly used in Africa and depends on the difference in temperature between air inside the poultry house and that outside. If the air outside is cooler than that inside, warm air inside the house is drown out and is replaced by cooler air. The open side walls act as inlets ridge ventilators or openings on the end walls near ridges act as outlets. Air velocity is of importance in natural ventilation because it affects the rate of change of air. Continuous ridge ventilators are desirable for long buildings but for small buildings two outlet ventilators near the roof on each side of the wall are enough (Kekeocha, 1984).
Relative humidity of 60-80% is desired in the house for optimum production (Pattison, 1993). Ensminger (1992) recommends relative humidity of 60-70% for layer houses as high humidity reduces evaporation and increases survival of pathogens.
b) Lighting
Egg production is stimulated by increase in day length. Reduction in day length leads to cessation of egg production and birds molt. Under natural light conditions, day length varies with the time of the year and latitude. At equinox (23rd march and 22nd September), the days and nights are equal in length. At the equator, day length is a little over 12 hours. Open sided houses are a norm in the tropics and therefore supplementing light in normal. In humid areas, where there is little change in day length through out the year, 2-3 hours of artificial lighting is recommended for laying birds (Smith, 1993).
If light intensity is unevenly distributed in the house, with bright and dark areas, birds tend to concentrate in areas with light and this tends to cause development of vices and respiratory diseases (Sainabury, 1993). Longer days stimulate egg production and encourage hens to consume more feed. In broilers, too much light may increase their activities and therefore reduce the efficiency of feed utilization (Smith, 1993).
c) Temperature
Adequate housing must provide the flock with optimum air quality and warm conditions so that performance may be optimized. Poultry house insulation is a requisite for open sided and environmentally controlled houses. Most insulation is confined to the roof where greatest heat is lost during cold weather conditions and also where sun rays strike (North and Bell, 1990).
Brooding temperature is 35-37.7 degrees Celsius in the first week of life. This is reduced by 3 degrees each week as birds grow. Huddling of chicks together around the heat source indicates that the temperature is too low. Chicks are widely spread out if temperature is too high but those that are contented are evenly spread over the brooding area (Portsmouth, 1989). Adult hen produce eggs maximally with optimum temperature close to 24degrees (Austic land Nesheim, 1990) but in intensively managed birds, optimum temperature should be 21degrees (Pattson, 1993). Oba 2000) recommends a temperature 75 for broilers. Increase in ambient temperature reduces appetite, water intake increases, egg weight and egg productivity reduces. It also results in laying thin shelled eggs (Kekeocha, 1984; Smith, 1993; Pattison, 1993). Temperature below the optimum level depresses hatchability, feed conversion efficiency and egg weight (North and Bell, 1990)
d) Chicken spacing
Chicken spacing is of importance in the poultry house to avoid overcrowding since this facilitates disease transmission. Stocking depends on the type of chicken. Management system, age and size of chicken. The floor space requirement of broilers is 0.3 sq feet from 0-4 weeks of age and 0.75 sq feet from 4-8 weeks of age while layers need 0.3 sq feet of space from 0-4 weeks, 0.6 sq feet from 4-8 weeks, 1.25 sq feet from 9-16 weeks and 1.5 sq feet for over 16weeks of age (Ensminger, 1992).
Housing floor requirements fro free range poultry are 3sq feet per bird. Indigenous birds have a small body size and their stocking density is 5 birds per sq meter (Portsmouth, 1989) or 15kg live weight per sq meter (Ensminger, 1992).
In the brooder, 7 meters of hover space is allowed per 1000 chicks and feeder space of 2.5cm per chick in the first 4 weeks, 5cm per chick in the second month and 7 cm in the third month. Water space of 2.5 cm is allowed per chick in the first 2 weeks of their life and 5cm in the remaining period (Kekeocha, 1984).
e) Feeding and nutrition
Poultry feeds are referred to as complete feeds because they contain proteins, energy, vitamins, minerals and other nutrients necessary for proper growth, egg production and health of birds. Carbohydrates and fats are primary sources of energy needed to maintain body temperature, movement of the body and for chemical reactions involved in synthesis of body tissues and elimination of wastes (Austic and Nisheim, 1990).
The conventional foodstuffs used in feed formulation are maize, sorghum, fishmeal, soyabean meal as sources of carbohydrates and proteins respectively. Other ingredients added include; mineral salts, vitamins, cocidiostarts and antiosidants like ethoxyquine or butylated hydroxytoluene, vitamin and mineral premixes (Smith, 1993). When feeding broilers, broiler starter is given to the birds from 0-21 days of age the followed by broiler finisher. Each broiler chick consumes1.5kg of broiler starter in the brooding period (0-3 weeks) and 3.5kg of broiler finisher from 4-7 weeks of age (Ugachick poultry breeders). For layers, chick mash is given from 0-8 weeks of age followed by grower’s mash from 9-20 weeks. After 20 weeks of age, layer’s complete meal is given (NUVITA Uganda feeds limited). Each layer chick consumes 2kg of chick mash in the brooding period (0-8 weeks), 6kg of grower’s mash in the growing period (9-20 weeks) and 49kf of layer’s mash in the laying period from 21-80 weeks of age (Ugachick poultry breeders).
f) Water consumption
Water is normally provided adlibitum. Water consumption increases with increase in age of the bird, protein and sodium chloride levels in the feed. Water deprivation can lead to death of poultry within 24 hours. A 10% restriction of water availability can reduce the growth rate and feed conversion efficiency of broilers. In layers, water deprivation can lead to moulting and cessation of egg production (Smith, 1993).
g) Litter management
Coffee husks, saw dust and wood shavings are used as litter. The success of deep litter system is dependent on decomposition of litter by bacteria(Sainsbury, 1993). Litter keep the birds clean and comfortable and absorbs moisture from droppings (Ensiminger, 1992). During the growing period, litter should contain 20-30% moisture. This result in better feather growth close to normal, feed conversion is improved, coccidiosis problems are easily controlled and ammonia in the poultry house is easily controlled (North and Bell, 1990). In brooder houses, wet litter can have a calamitous effect on the feet of cocks causing accumulation of infected litter on the feet leading to fall in the level of fertility (Sainsbury, 1993).
Proper litter management in the poultry house reduces the need to remove litter in between flocks and aids in creating clean out schedule that allows direct application of manure onto cropland without intermediate storage.
The primary key to good litter management is keeping litter dry. Wet litter is undesirable and creates a condition where more nitrogen is released in form of ammonia. Good litter conditions are maintained if there is proper heating and ventilation, selection ands operation of watering systems to minimise water spillage on litter. Drinker points and drinking areas are dangerous due to water splashing and concentration of birds. Therefore it is essential to frequently turn this litter. Wet litter is cold and tends to take up heat in an attempt to dry up. It’s advisable to start with about 70mm layer of litter and add to it with time. Adding litter dilutes droppings and the condition of litter is improved. High ammonia levels are dangerous and unpleasant to operators. Ammonia levels should not exceed 15-20 p.p.m. levels over40p.p.m may reduce feed intake. Levels over 50p.p.m affect the mucous membranes lining the respiratory tract, affect respiration and may also cause blindness (Sainsbury, 1993).
h) Record keeping
The key to good business and management is records. Records are kept to provide information from which the poultry business may analysed so that the operator may develop more effective plans to develop the enterprise, to provide profit and loss accounts, to provide net worth statement showing financial progress throughout the year, to keep production records on birds and to keep a complete historical record of financial transactions for future reference (Ensminger, 1992).
Issues recorded by most farmers include; total number of birds housed, the cost of birds or the cost of rearing birds if it’s done by the owner, eggs collected daily, sales made, feed consumption, mortality and labour costs (Sainabury, 1993). Records should not be elaborated otherwise they may not be kept properly by workers (Smith, 1993).
i) Marketing
In Africa and other tropical areas, marketing of eggs and poultry is not highly organized. Sale of eggs and poultry depends on the farmer’s initiative. Efforts to establish market schemes in different areas have not yet succeeded and there are few commercial parkers thus making it a problem to farmers and acts as a brake to poultry production. In a glut, price cutting becomes acute and farmers have to sale off their produce at lower price to reduce the stock (Kekeocha, 1984). In the poultry industry there is no room for unplanned and uncoordinated production therefore its important for the producers to make advance arrangements for the disposal of their birds and eggs at an appropriate time. The more control the poultry industry gains over the marketing and distribution of its produce the better it becomes for each individual producer.
The way in which the poultry meat is presented is important if sales are to increase. The prepacked carcasses whether frozen or fresh must have an eye appeal. Processing of poultry involves killing the bird, bleeding, hanging for reflex action to cease and plucking. This is followed by evisceration, washing, grading, parking and freezing. Many producers take no step to find the most appropriate market for their products nor do they study the requirements for the prospective buyers sufficiently. It’s only in the broiler industry where it has been considered. The various sales outlets for poultry and its products are; consumers at farm gate (carcasses are dressed), retail outlets, hotels and other catering establishments, parking stations, traveling dealers and large central markets (Portsmouth, 1989).
On the side of eggs, its future lies in promoting egg dish suited for the local dish. After eggs are collected at the poultry farm, they should be graded. This is to make sure that the eggs reach the consumers with the least possible loss of their original quality. The quality of commercial eggs is measured by; cleanliness, shape, colour, size and weight. Cracked, misshapen and broken eggs are always rejected. Eggs with chalk heads, sand heads of body checks are disqualified even if the defects are minor. Egg size and weight should be uniform. Double York and jumbo eggs are rejected and sold locally to overcome transport problems very eggs are discarded. According to African classification, large eggs are 65g and above. Medium eggs are 55-64g while small eggs are 40-55g. according European classification, class 1 eggs are 70g and above, class 2 eggs are 65-70g, class 3 eggs are 60-65g, class 4 are 55-60g,class 5 are 50-55g, class 6 are 45-50g while class 7 are 45g and below.
Internally, egg quality is measured by the size of the air space, condition of the yolk and the egg white, presence of blood and meat spots or other abnormalities in the egg white. This is done by candling (Kekeocha, 1984).
j) Poultry diseases
Disease is a deviation from normal health, a condition where all the organ systems and the body structures are working in full harmony. In disease, functions of organs and body structures is up set and normal life is disturbed. In most cases, poultry diseases manifest by clinical signs and these may include; reduced feed intake, reduced egg production, high mortality, isolation from other birds and retarded growth (Kekeocha, 1984). The management decision made by the owner and the implementation by the stock person are reflected in the health of the flock especially in birds kept intensively (Partison, 1993). The diseases that commonly affect chicken may be grouped into bacterial, viral, protozoal, helminth and fungal.
Bacterial diseases
Salmonella infections
They are caused by bacteria of genus salmonella. The infections are categorized into salmonella pullorum, fowl typhoid and paratyphoid infections.
Pullorum disease
The disease is caused by salmonella pullorum and usually causes high mortality in young chicks and occasionally in adult chicken. The disease is chiefly transmitted through the egg, but also occurs by direct or indirect contact. Poultry visitors and buyers may also carry the infection on their clothes and footwear (Calneck, 1993).
Pullorum disease is controlled by establishing a breeding stock free from S. pullorum, hatch and rear the progeny directly or indirectly avoiding contact with infected chicken and turkey (Caknek, 1997).
Fowl typhoid
The causal agent is salmonella gallinarum. This infection is similar to pullorum disease. The disease is egg transmitted and has greater tendency o spread by direct or indirect contact in among growing and adult flocks. Mortality is high in all ages. Older birds may get dehydrated, anaemic and develop enteritis.
Clinically fowl typhoid mainly affects growing adult birds. Signs shown include; reduced appetite, ruffled feathers, pale shruncken comb, reduced egg production, fertility and hatchability, fever, diarrhea and dehydration. Death occurs within 1-5 days (Sainabury, 1993; Calnek, 1997).
The disease is prophylactically controlled and treated using sulfonamide drugs as in plorum disease. Fowl typhoid is controlled by establishing a breeding stock free from S. gallinarum, hatch and rear the progeny directly or indirectly avoiding contact with infected chicken and turkeys (Calnek, 1997).
Helminhosis
This affects birds on free range and deep litter systems. The disease is mainly caused by tape worms such as; Rallietine echinobothrida, R. tetragena, round worms such as; ascaridia galli, caecal worms like Heterekis gallinae, thread worms like the capillaria species (Kekeocha, 1984)
Generally the chicks are droopy; there is failure to gain weight, low egg production in layers, diarrhoea and inflammation of the gut wall.
Helminthiasis can be prevented by practicing good litter management, rotation of the range and routine deworming (Kekeocha, 1984).
Affected birds should be treated with piperazine, benzimidazole for nematods and niclosamide fro tape worms (Oba, 2000).
Fungal infection
Brooder’s pneumonia
Its caused by fungal organisms of genus Aspergillus. These are; Aspergillus flavus and A fumigatus. The disease occurs in two forms; the acute form characterized by severe outbreaks in young birds and high mortality. Chronic aspergillosis occurs in adult breeder birds. Aspergillosis is common in birds which are confined on moldy litter or when given moldy feeds.
The organisms are transmitted by inhalation especially if litter or feed is heavily contaminated with aspergillus.
Clinically, there is dyspnoea, increased rate of breathing, gasping and coughing, in older chicken there is anorexia, ruffled feathers emaciation and dysphagia in case the esophageal mucosa is affected (Oba, 2000). Some birds have serious nasal and ocular discharges. There is reduced egg production and torticollis (Calnek, 1997).
Control of aspergillosis depends on strict hygienic practices and removal of affected birds; frequent removal of water and feed troughs, daily cleaning and disinfection of water and feeding utensils to eliminate the infection.
Sick individuals should be given aqueous solution of cooper sulphate to prevent spread of infection, treat litter with nyastatin and cooper sulphate, amphotericin B and crystal violet. Neomycin can be used to control outbreaks in chicks, Amphotericin B and phenyl mercuric dinaphthylmethane disulfonate controls infection in embryos. Dimethyldithiocarbamate given subcutaneously is effective against the infection in chicks of 5 to 10 weeks of age (Calnek, 1997).
Viral diseases
Newcastle disease
It is an acute viral disease, usually of birds characterized by sudden onset and rapid spread of respiratory symptoms. Nervous signs usually present in chicks, there is high mortality and majority of the flock are affected. The disease attacks chicken, turkey and wild species of birds (Kekeocha, 1984).
The disease is caused by a paramyxo virus which has several strains. The disease is transmitted via aerosols and faeces. The incubation period of the virus varies from 2-15 days or longer with an average of 5-6 days (Oba, 2000).
Clinically the disease is characterized by respiratory and nervous signs and in some cases Diarrhoea and swelling of the head. Birds appear listless, weak, have an increased respiratory rate. There are numerous signs prior to death such as muscle tramor, torticoliis, paralysis of the wings, circling, walking backwards, opisthotonas and there is reduction in egg production (Calnek, 1997 and Sainabury, 1993).
The disease can be prevented by vaccination using B1 and Lasota vaccines in the first 1-4 days of life, 2 weeks, 4 weeks. in layers vaccination is again done at 10 weeks of age and just before laying. There after, revaccination is done every 5 months during the laying season. In endemic areas and also maintain good sanitation (Sainabury, 1993). Sick individuals should be isolated. At the moment there is no specific cure for the disease (Calnek, 1997).
Fowl pox
It’s a disease of growing and adult birds caused by DNA Avian pox viruses of family paramyxoviridae (Oba, 2000). Its transmitted by mosquitoes of genera culex and aedes and contact through abrasion of skin (Calnek, 1997).
The disease presented in two forms; the cuteneous and diphtheritic forms. In the cuteneous form the comb, wattle eyelids and other unfeathered parts of the body are lacrymation, lose of eyes in case of secondary bacterial infections.
In diphteritic form, there are yellow lesions on the oral mucosa, larynx esophagus and trachea. There may also be cutaneous lesions firmly adhered on to the mucosa (Calnek, 1997).
This disease can be prevented and controlled by stocking clean birds, isolating and treating infected birds, observing strict sanitary measures, vaccination using pigeon pox vaccine for laying birds and fowl pox adopted vaccine for growers. The vaccine is administred either by wing or by feather follicles. Infected birds should be isolated and treated by scrapping and painting of affected area using iodine solution (Kekeocha, 1997).
CHAPTER THREE
A survey will be conducted in Najjembe sub county of Mukono district in Central Uganda, the region that is very popular with indigenous chicken.
Najjembe Sub County with a high density of indigenous chickens is purposively selected in Mukono district. Two parishes will be randomly sampled in the sub-county, from each of which four villages will be surveyed. Five homes distant from each other will be chosen randomly per village. This sampling frame will result into forty households engaged in the entire study.
i) can be got from those who cannot read and write
Non verbal behavior can be observed during the process. These will include:
a) Questionnaires (Semi structured).
This method is;
i) Convenient because it provides the respondents with ample time to think and respond to the questions.
ii) The respondent will also be free and frank in as far as provision of sensitive information is concerned.
b) Face to face (guided interviews )
This will be used because;
ii) Researcher will have time to repeat questions to ensure that respondents have got their meaning.
iii) Information
Data will then coded and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Scientists software (SPSS). Descriptive statistics will be used to obtain frequencies and percentages.
The marketing margins will be calculated using (market prices – farm gate prices)
The profitability will be calculated using revenue - costs
These will include individual farmers and the sampling unit will be the individual households keeping local chicken.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher endeavors to assess the data collected in respect to local poultry production and marketing in Najjembe Sub County, Mukono district. Farmers were interviewed to seek their opinions on the subject of study. Secondary data was obtained from different literature sources such as annual reports, magazines, texts and the internet among others.
4.2 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
4.2.1 Gender, age and marital statistics
The majority of the respondents were males accounting for 55% of the sample, as compared to 45% females. The age characteristics indicated that the majority of the farmers were aged 30 – 50 years (60%). Details are summarized in the table below:
Table 1: Age statistics of the respondents.
Age bracket | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
20 -29 years | 10 | 20 |
30 – 50 years | 30 | 60 |
Over 5 years | 10 | 20 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
From the table, most of the farmers were aged 30 – 50 years accounting for 60%, followed by 20% aged 20 – 29 years and 20% aged over 50 years. The findings imply that poultry farmers are youthful. The main occupation of the respondents was farming (80%).
Data on marital status indicated that the majority of the interviewees are married (56%). Others were still single, while others were divorced and widowed, as shown in the table below:
Table 3: Marital status of the respondents
Marital status | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Single | 10 | 20 |
Married | 28 | 56 |
Divorced | 5 | 10 |
Widowed | 7 | 14 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
As shown in the table, most respondents were married men and women accounting for 60%, 20% were singles, 14% widowed while only 10% were divorced. Data on the head of family shown that most families were headed by men (65%) ad compared to 35% headed by women. The average family size was 5 people.
4.2.2 Education
There was variation in education background, with the majority certificate holders (70%), others hold diplomas and degrees. Details are given in the table below:
Table 2: Education levels of the respondents
Education | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Certificate | 35 | 70 |
Diploma | 10 | 20 |
Degree | 5 | 10 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
As evidenced from the table above, 70% of the interviewees hold certificates, 20% hold diplomas, while only 10% hold degrees. The researcher confirmed that the farmers hold some academic qualifications.
4.3 Base line data on the production of local chicken
In trying to establish to establish baseline data on the production of local chicken, the researcher sought for the type of poultry kept, the management systems used and the experience of the farmers by the respondents.
4.3.1 Type of poultry raised
The majority (52%) raise local chicken, while others raise exotic and some few raise both breeds. More information follows in the table below:
Table 4: Type of poultry kept by the respondents.
Type | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Local | 26 | 52 |
Exotic | 15 | 30 |
Local and exotic | 9 | 18 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
The majority of the interviewees raise local chicken (52%), followed by 30% holding exotic chicken while only 18% hold both local and exotic chicken.
4.3.2 Management systems
About the management systems used in poultry, findings indicate that most of the interviewees have adopted the intensive system. Details follow in the table below:
Table 5: Management systems used in poultry
System | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Extensive | 10 | 20 |
Semi-intensive | 16 | 32 |
Intensive | 21 | 42 |
Others | 2 | 4 |
Not sure | 1 | 2 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Findings show that most interviewees apply intensive management system (42%), 32% use semi intensive, 20% extensive, while 4% use other systems. Only 2% were not sure.
4.3.3 Experience of the poultry farmers
Findings indicate that most farmers have been engaged in poultry farming for at least five years. Details are given in the table below:
Table 6: Farmers’ experience in poultry farming
Number of years | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Less than 3 years | 10 | 20 |
3 – 5 years | 12 | 24 |
Over 5 years | 28 | 56 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
The majority of the interviewees (56%) have experience of over 5 years in poultry farming, followed by 24% with 3 – 5 years experience while only 20% had less than three years experience. The researcher confirmed that most of the farmers have vast experience in poultry.
The researcher wished to establish how the birds are kept at night, how often cleaning is made, and the general care accorded to the birds. Responses to those questions are discussed below:
4.3.4 Housing of birds at night
From the findings, birds are kept in different places. These include: kitchen, rooms inside people’s houses, perch on trees, hand woven baskets, bamboo cages among others. More information is explained in the table below:
Table 7: Housing of birds at night
Housing | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Kitchen | 10 | 20 |
Inside house | 12 | 24 |
Trees | 3 | 6 |
Houses made for chicken | 18 | 36 |
Bamboo cage | 2 | 4 |
Not sure | 5 | 10 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Majority of the respondents (36%) keep birds inside chicken houses. This they said was meant to guarantee safety of the birds. Other 24% keep their birds inside their main houses, 20% use kitchen, 6% keep birds on of trees, 4% use bamboo cages while another 10% were not sure of where their birds stay at night.
4.3.5 Frequency of cleaning and the general care for the birds
The majority of the interviewees (85%) acknowledged that cleaning is done on daily basis to avoid possible vices and diseases that may crop up and lead to severe losses. 10% claimed that they clean every after 2 – 3 days while 5% clean any time, any day. It was stated that the general care for the birds was not much since most of the birds raised were local and on free range system.
4.3.6 Feeding of birds
Most of the interviewees (80%) accepted that they give supplementary feed to their birds; only 20% claimed they don’t. The types of feed resources given to the poultry include grains, vegetables, oil seeds, minerals and vitamins among others. Details follow in the table below:
Table 8: supplementary feed for birds
Feed | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Grains | 25 | 50 |
Vegetables | 10 | 20 |
Oil seed | 8 | 16 |
Minerals | 3 | 6 |
Vitamins | 4 | 8 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
From the table, it is evident that most farmers (50%) give grains as the supplementary feed for their birds, followed by 20% who use vegetables, 16% use oil seeds, 6% use minerals while 8% use vitamins. It was observed that the frequency of giving supplementary feed varies from person to person. Some give once a day, while others give twice or thrice a day. The majority (70%) asserted that they merely throw on the ground for collective feed, while 25% use containers to feed.
The 20% who claimed that they don’t give supplementary feed to their birds, cited reasons why they fail to give. These include: lack of awareness, unavailability of the feeds because they are very expensive and the general lack of time to look after the birds.
It was also agreed that birds are allowed to scavenge and that they are given drinking water to ease on their digestion. The water is given to the birds using containers which are rarely washed; this exposes the birds to diseases. The major sources of water given to the birds include: boreholes, wells, rain, river and tap water. More information is reflected in the figure below:
Figure 1: A pie chart showing the water sources for birds
Source: Primary data
From the findings, the majority of the interviewees use borehole water for giving the birds, accounting for 60%, followed by 20% who use tap water. 10% use rain water while 8% and 2% use the well and river water respectively. It was generally agreed that culling of birds is purposely done any time. The purposes cited include: consumption, sale and sacrifice. The birds to be culled are arrived at basing on their age, productivity and sickness. More information is given in the table below:
Table 6: Factors that determine birds to be culled
Reason | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Age | 15 | 30 |
Productivity | 28 | 56 |
Sickness | 5 | 10 |
Others | 2 | 4 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Most of the interviewees (56%) cited productivity as the key for deciding which birds to cull. The birds whose productivity is very low are immediately culled on detection. Another 30% base on the age of the birds. Old birds are culled, while 10% cited sickness and 2% gave other reasons such as sacrifice.
4.4 Factors limiting the production of local chicken
Study findings revealed that many factors hinder the productivity of birds. These include inadequate food due to high costs, leading to low output, diseases, poor facilities for feeding, treatment among others.
In trying to establish the effect of diseases on poultry, the researcher sought to find out whether the birds experienced serious diseases.
4.4.1 Diseases
Majority of the respondents acknowledged that many diseases affect birds. More information is in the table below:
Table 7: Responses on presence of diseases
View | Frequency | Percentage |
Agreed | 35 | 70 |
Disagreed | 08 | 16 |
Not sure | 07 | 13 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Most respondents (70%) agreed that many diseases affect poultry production in the area of study, 16% disagreed while 13% were not sure. Among the diseases cited include: influenza, chicken pox, new castle and cockdiocis among others.
According to the interviewees, whenever birds fall sick they are treated differently. Some farmers kill them, others call the veterinary doctors, others sell off, and others consume them while others treat by themselves, as seen in the table below:
Table 7: Treatment of birds that fall sick
Method | Frequency | Percentage |
Treating by self | 20 | 40 |
Treating by Veterinary doctor | 10 | 20 |
Killing sick birds | 6 | 12 |
Consuming sick birds | 5 | 10 |
Selling sick birds | 9 | 18 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
The majority of the respondents (40%) asserted that they treat the sick birds locally by themselves, 20% invite veterinary doctors to treat their birds, 18% claimed that sick birds are sold off immediately they are detected, 12% said sick birds are killed while 10% consume the sick birds.
Predators were also cited among the factors limiting the production of chicken in Mukono, these include birds, thieves, scavengers.
4.5 Marketing of poultry in Mukono
The age at which birds are marketed varies from farm to farm, depending on the breed and the feeding rate. Birds that are fed very well lay many eggs and start laying early. Exotic breeds as well as cross breed birds tend to behave the same way as the exotic type.
4.5.1 Marketing place
In trying to establish the marketing place for chicken, the following responses were gathered by the researcher:
Table 8: Marketing place for birds
Place for marketing | Frequency | Percentage |
Home | 14 | 28 |
Open market | 30 | 60 |
Home and open place | 6 | 12 |
Tome | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Most of the interviewees (60%), sell their birds through the open market, 28% sell their birds at home where by the sellers of birds in local markets purchase and take to their markets. Only 12% sell from home as well as in open market.
4.5.2 Market price for birds sold at home
Birds sold at home go for different prices depending on the season, weight of the bird, need for quick money by the farmer or detection of diseases coming. The average prices according to the respondents are given in the table below:
Table 9: Average price for a bird sold at home
Price | Frequency | Percentage |
8000 – 12,000 | 10 | 20 |
12001- 15,000 | 32 | 64 |
15,000 – above | 5 | 10 |
Not sure | 3 | 6 |
Tome | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
As seen in the table above, the average price at which the majority (64%) of the respondents sell their birds at home is between 12001 and 15000, followed by 20% who sell between 8000 – 12000, 10% sell above 15000 while only 6% were not sure. The researcher confirmed that local birds fetch a lot of money to the farmers.
The average weight at which birds are sold is 1.8Kg – 3kg for both hens and cocks. The market place was said to be very close to the farmers not exceeding 1km away.
When asked about the challenges they encounter in marketing of their birds, respondents cited unstable prices, low prices, seasonality in demand, poor infrastructure and availability of substitutes among others. Details in the table below:
Table 10: Challenges faced in marketing of birds
Challenge | Frequency | Percentage |
Price fluctuations | 14 | 28 |
Seasonality | 20 | 40 |
Low prices | 6 | 12 |
Poor infrastructures | 5 | 10 |
Presence of substitutes | 5 | 10 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Most of the interviewees acknowledged that seasonality is the biggest challenge to the marketing of birds. They argued that during calendar days such as Easter and Christmas, the demand for chicken is very high, while during off-season the demand is very low and offered prices are very low.
4.6 Profitability of poultry rearing
Most of the respondents agreed that poultry is one of the most viable ventures. They argued that birds fetch a lot of profits through the sale of eggs, hens and cocks. Cocks fetch the highest amount of money. The eggs for local chicken have a very high market compared to the exotic type. As observed in the table below, the average price for a bird is very high, yet local birds are raised at low cost.
Profit is the difference between revenue and cost.
Table 11: Average price for a bird
Price | Frequency | Percentage |
8000 – 12,000 | 10 | 20 |
12001- 15,000 | 32 | 64 |
15,000 – above | 5 | 10 |
Not sure | 3 | 6 |
Tome | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
As seen in the table above, the average price at which the majority (64%) of the respondents sell their birds is between 12001 and 15000, followed by 20% who sell between 8000 – 12000, 10% sell above 15000 while only 6% were not sure. The researcher confirmed that local birds fetch a lot of money to the farmers.
In trying to assess the profitability of poultry farming, the researcher put the farmers to task to explain the average unit price of each of the products they sell in the open market. Details follow in the table below:
Table showing the average unit prices
Type Small Medium Large | Price 8000- 10,000 12,000-15,000
15001-20,000 | Frequency 20 20
10 | Percentage 40 40
20 |
Total |
| 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Data indicated that most of the farmers (80%) get price for small and medium sized birds. Only 20% obtain price for large birds. Small birds are sold at 8000-10000 while the medium sized go for 12000-15000. The implication to the researcher is that most of the birds sold in the area are not large.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter involves the summary of the results presented in the previous chapter. It also presents the conclusion and recommendations for future action, in respect to the findings from the study area.
5.2 Summary of study findings
5.2.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Gender, age and marital statistics
The majority of the respondents were males accounting for 55% of the sample, as compared to 45% females. The age characteristics indicated that the majority of the farmers were aged 30 – 50 years (60%). The findings imply that poultry farmers are youthful. The main occupation of the respondents was farming (80%).
Data on marital status indicated that the majority of the interviewees are married (56%). Others were still single, while others were divorced and widowed. Data on the head of family shown that most families were headed by men (65%) as compared to 35% headed by women. The average family size was 5 people.
Education
There was variation in education background, with the majority certificate holders (70%), others hold diplomas and degrees, 70% of the interviewees hold certificates, 20% hold diplomas, while only 10% hold degrees. The researcher confirmed that the farmers hold some academic qualifications.
5.2.2 Base line data on the production of local chicken
In trying to establish to establish baseline data on the production of local chicken, the researcher sought for the type of poultry kept, the management systems used and the experience of the farmers by the respondents.
Type of poultry raised
The majority (52%) raise local chicken, while others raise exotic and some few raise both breeds. The majority of the interviewees raise local chicken (52%), followed by 30% holding exotic chicken while only 18% hold both local and exotic chicken.
Management systems
About the management systems used in poultry, findings indicate that most of the interviewees have adopted the intensive system. Findings show that most interviewees apply intensive management system (42%), 32% use semi intensive, 20% extensive, while 4% use other systems. Only 2% were not sure.
Experience of the poultry farmers
Findings indicate that most farmers have been engaged in poultry farming for at least five years. The majority of the interviewees (56%) have experience of over 5 years in poultry farming, followed by 24% with 3 – 5 years experience. The researcher confirmed that most of the farmers have vast experience in poultry.
The researcher wished to establish how the birds are kept at night, how often cleaning is made, and the general care accorded to the birds. Responses to those questions are discussed below:
Housing of birds at night
From the findings, birds are kept in different places. These include: kitchen, rooms inside people’s houses, perch on trees, hand woven baskets, bamboo cages among others.
Majority of the respondents (36%) keep birds inside chicken houses. This they said was meant to guarantee safety of the birds.
Frequency of cleaning and the general care for the birds
The majority of the interviewees (85%) acknowledged that cleaning is done on daily basis to avoid possible vices and diseases that may crop up and lead to severe losses. It was stated that the general care for the birds was not much since most of the birds raised were local and on free range system.
Feeding of birds
Most of the interviewees (80%) accepted that they give supplementary feed to their birds; only 20% claimed they don’t. The types of feed resources given to the poultry include grains, vegetables, oil seeds, minerals and vitamins among others. It is evident that most farmers (50%) give grains as the supplementary feed for their birds.
The 20% who claimed that they don’t give supplementary feed to their birds, cited reasons why they fail to give. These include: lack of awareness, unavailability of the feeds because they are very expensive and the general lack of time to look after the birds.
It was also agreed that birds are allowed to scavenge and that they are given drinking water to ease on their digestion. The water is given to the birds using containers which are rarely washed; this exposes the birds to diseases. The major sources of water given to the birds include: boreholes, wells, rain, river and tap water. The majority of the interviewees use borehole water for giving the birds, accounting for 60%, followed by 20% who use tap water. The birds to be culled are arrived at basing on their age, productivity and sickness.
Most of the interviewees (56%) cited productivity as the key for deciding which birds to cull. The birds whose productivity is very low are immediately culled on detection. Another 30% base on the age of the birds.
5.2.3 Factors limiting the production of local chicken
Study findings revealed that many factors hinder the productivity of birds. These include inadequate food due to high costs, leading to low output, diseases, poor facilities for feeding, treatment among others.
In trying to establish the effect of diseases on poultry, the researcher sought to find out whether the birds experienced serious diseases.
4.4.1 Diseases
Majority of the respondents acknowledged that many diseases affect birds. Most respondents (70%) agreed that many diseases affect poultry production in the area of study.
Avian influenza is one of the diseases and is categorized as mild or highly pathogenic. The mild form produces listlessness, loss of appetite, respiratory distress, diarrhea, transient drops in egg production, and low mortality. The highly pathogenic form produces facial swelling, blue comb and wattles, and dehydration with respiratory distress. Dark red/white spots develop in the legs and combs of chickens. There can be blood-tinged discharge from the nostrils. Mortality can range from low to near 100 percent. Sudden exertion adds to the total mortality. Egg production and hatchability decreases. There can be an increase in production of soft-shelled and shell-less eggs.
Transmission: The avian influenza virus can remain viable for long periods of time at moderate temperatures and can live indefinitely in frozen material. As a result, the disease can be spread through improper disposal of infected carcasses and manure. Avian influenza can be spread by contaminated shoes, clothing, crates, and other equipment. Insects and rodents may mechanically carry the virus from infected to susceptible poultry.
Treatment: There is no effective treatment for avian influenza. With the mild form of the disease, good husbandry, proper nutrition, and broad spectrum antibiotics may reduce losses from secondary infections. Recovered flocks continue to shed the virus. Vaccines may only be used with special permit.
Prevention: A vaccination program used in conjunction with a strict quarantine has been used to control mild forms of the disease. With the more lethal forms, strict quarantine and rapid destruction of all infected flocks remains the only effective method of stopping an avian influenza outbreak. If you suspect you may have Avian Influenza in your flock, even the mild form, you must report it to the state veterinarian's office. A proper diagnosis of avian influenza is essential. Aggressive action is recommended even for milder infections as this virus has the ability to readily mutate to a more pathogenic form.
Fowl pox is a viral disease spread by the bites of mosquitoes. The infection leads to warty nodules on the bare or non-feathered parts of the head and legs and sometimes lesions in the beak, nostrils and throat. It depends on location, but pox is referred to as either skin pox or 'wet' pox.
The most common outbreak is the skin form, showing warty-like eruptions. Pale lumps form yellow bumps which may enlarge and run together forming masses of yellow crusts. It takes about a week for these scabs to darken and fall off.
The 'wet' pox form shows up in the beak, nostrils and throat as cheesy masses which interfere with eating and breathing.
Treatment is of little value. Lesions normally heal within 4 weeks. In severe cases it may be necessary to remove scabs and treat with antiseptic washes. Adding water soluble vitamin tonic powder to the flocks water source will help them fight this off.
Warm salt water can be used to clean off nostrils and beaks. The addition of 1 tablespoon of cider vinegar to each gallon of water can help reduce mucus but must not be mixed with the vitamin tonic.
Prevention by reducing exposure to mosquitoes is the best defense. Screening sheds and coops and by dealing with mosquito habitats. Vaccination is effective and warranted
once you are aware that this is prevalent in your area. Consider this when adding to the flock in subsequent seasons.
Tuberculosis
A bacterial infection, caused by Mycobacterium avium, of poultry, game birds, cage birds etc. Morbidity and mortality are high. Transmission is via faecal excretion, ingestion, inhalation, offal and fomites. The disease has a slow course through a flock. The bacterium resists heat, cold, water, dryness, pH changes and many disinfectants.
According to the interviewees, whenever birds fall sick they are treated differently. Some farmers kill them, others call the veterinary doctors, others sell off, and others consume them while others treat by themselves.
The majority of the respondents (40%) asserted that they treat the sick birds locally by themselves, 20% invite veterinary doctors to treat their birds. Predators were also cited among the factors limiting the production of chicken in Mukono, these include birds, thieves, and scavengers.
5.2.4 Marketing of poultry in Mukono
The age at which birds are marketed varies from farm to farm, depending on the breed and the feeding rate. Birds that are fed very well lay many eggs and start laying early. Exotic breeds as well as cross breed birds tend to behave the same way as the exotic type.
Marketing place
In trying to establish the marketing place for chicken, the following responses were gathered by the researcher. Most of the interviewees (60%), sell their birds through the open market, 28% sell their birds at home where by the sellers of birds in local markets purchase and take to their markets.
Market price for birds sold at home
Birds sold at home go for different prices depending on the season, weight of the bird, need for quick money by the farmer or detection of diseases coming . The average price at which the majority (64%) of the respondents sell their birds at home is between 12001 and 15000, followed by 20% who sell between 8000 – 12000, 10% sell above 15000 while only 6% were not sure. The researcher confirmed that local birds fetch a lot of money to the farmers. The average weight at which birds are sold is 1.8Kg – 3kg for both hens and cocks. The market place was said to be very close to the farmers not exceeding 1km away.
When asked about the challenges they encounter in marketing of their birds, respondents cited unstable prices, low prices, seasonality in demand, poor infrastructure and availability of substitutes among others. Most of the interviewees acknowledged that seasonality is the biggest challenge to the marketing of birds. They argued that during calendar days such as Easter and Christmas, the demand for chicken is very high, while during off-season the demand is very low and offered prices are very low.
5.2.5 Profitability of poultry rearing
Most of the respondents agreed that poultry is one of the most viable ventures. They argued that birds fetch a lot of profits through the sale of eggs, hens and cocks. Cocks fetch the highest amount of money. The eggs for local chicken have a very high market compared to the exotic type. As observed in the table below, the average price for a bird is very high, yet local birds are raised at low cost.
Profit is the difference between revenue and cost. The average price at which the majority (64%) of the respondents sell their birds is between 12001 and 15000, followed by 20% who sell between 8000 – 12000, 10% sell above 15000 while only 6% were not sure. The researcher confirmed that local birds fetch a lot of money to the farmers.
In trying to assess the profitability of poultry farming, the researcher put the farmers to task to explain the average unit price of each of the products they sell in the open market.
Data indicated that most of the farmers (80%) get price for small and medium sized birds. Only 20% obtain price for large birds. Small birds are sold at 8000-10000 while the medium sized go for 12000-15000. The implication to the researcher is that most of the birds sold in the area are not large.
5.3 Conclusion
The production of poultry is not very high among the farmers of Mukono, although it was cited to be the most viable project. The average price of a bird ranges between 12000 – 20000, indicating that birds fetch very high prices and ultimately very high profits to the farmers. Among the challenges cited include diseases that lead to severe loss of poultry and other challenges such as price fluctuations and seasonality in demand and supply. These challenges make planning in this industry very difficult.
5.4 Recommendations
The researcher came up with the following recommendations:
The government and other NGOs should invest a lot of money in sensitizing the public about the advantages of raising poultry, such as quick returns. They should also be trained on how to handle poultry.
The government should institute good health practices such as quarantine to minimize the spread of diseases among birds. Besides, universal immunization for birds should be put in place to help reduce on the problem of diseases.
The government through price control should set suitable price for chicken. This will help reduce on the problem of fluctuation.
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