CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The story of the emergence of coffee in Uganda can be simply and quite remarkably stated. A wild bush, of little commercial consequence to the local populace, recognized primarily as a bean to be used in the traditional blood brotherhood ritual, was transformed over a hundred years into a widely cultivated and traded commodity. Today Ugandan coffee is part of a multi-billion dollar agribusiness of global significance.
Coffee as a commodity has continued to play a leading role in the economy of Uganda. In 1998, coffee contributed about 60% of total foreign exchange earnings from commodity exports down from 90% in 1980s (UCDA, 1996/97). Although the non traditional export sector of late has attained an annual growth rate of about 51% analysis by export promotions board, 1998 still reveals that coffee will remain Uganda’s substantial source of foreign exchange in the near future.
1.1 History of coffee in Uganda
Before 1894, Uganda as we see it today did not exist as an economic or political entity. The country we know as Uganda today was essentially a colonial creation, a culmination of various intervening British colonial interests of somewhat mixed intent. Uganda was created in the collusion and competition between foreign interests, traditional rulers and influential local and foreign notaries. The Uganda coffee sector as we have come to know it today has it roots in this era. It was born around the same time as the Uganda colonial entity was established. Like the Uganda people being formed into a nation, coffee existed before colonial era but was to be transformed. It was commoditised and its meaning and significance changed and shaped over the years to create what we experience today as a key player in a global agribusiness. Thus coffee and its development experience can be seen as encapsulating the changes over time that Uganda as a nation has experienced in its wider development experience.
Africa’s second largest producer of coffee after Ethiopia and the 7th largest coffee producer in the world. The Ugandan coffee sector is renowned for the high quality of its Robusta. The sector has a large geographic and socio-economic footprint. In the 25 years to 2005 coffee contributed an average of US$ 245 million a year to Uganda’s export earnings (Note that Uganda’s GNP is circa US$6000 million a year). Today coffee cultivation stretches across significant parts of the south east and North West of the country. Coffee engages 500, 000 families as smallholding farmers. The sector is believed to benefit about 3.5million directly and employs, directly or indirectly, about 5 million people through which it impacts the livelihoods of about 7million Ugandans approximately 25% of the population. The coffee tree crop yields two harvest seasons in line with duality of the rain patterns - concentrated in November to January and June to July. Socio-economically this means that farmers and others in the sector are continually – all the year round -involved in some way with the business of tending, processing and trading the crop. Over the last 5 years Coffee earnings have accounted for just less than 20% of export earnings [BOU 2005]. Coffee thus not only represents a large number people – the way it is grown and marketed encompasses aspects that are the very essence of current Ugandan life. Coffee is at once and the same time rural and urban, modern and traditional, domestic and international, indigenous and foreign, public and private.
Uganda produces two types of coffee: Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), which comprises about 70 per cent of the world’s coffee production but only 10 per cent of Uganda’s coffee production; and Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora), which comprises about 30 per cent of the world’s production and 90 per cent of Uganda’s production.
Robusta coffee is indigenous to Uganda in the central parts of the country, while Arabica coffee was introduced by the British colonial authorities at the turn of the twentieth century. Robusta is grown in the central part of Uganda in the Lake Victoria crescent, and across the west, south-west, and east of the country. Arabica beans are grown at higher altitude, in the areas of Mount Elgon along Uganda’s western border with Kenya and in south-western Uganda along the Rwenzori mountain range. This widespread cultivation places Uganda among the top 10 coffee-producing countries in the world and second only to Ethiopia among the Africa, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries (CTA, 2006).
Ugandan Robusta beans are uncharacteristically hard, giving them good roasting qualities.
The beans are typically grown in the absence of chemical fertilizers by rooted cuttings and elite seeds. They have a mild, soft, sweet and neutral taste, and have high frothing properties suitable for popular drinks such as espressos. Uganda’s Arabica also has strong market qualities; it is wet processed (washed) to produce a mild coffee more popular with most consumers.
1.2 Problem statement
Coffee plays an important role in the economy and livelihoods of Uganda’s rural population. The coffee industry consists of low input-intensity smallholders with an average plot size of 0.2 hectares (UNHS 2002), providing the main source of income for an estimated 0.3–0.5 million households distributed over two-thirds of the country. However, over 2 million people are estimated to derive coffee-related incomes by living and working on coffee farms and other support and downstream activities, including processing, input supply, trading, and transport (Ssemwanga 2004; UCTF 2005). About 40 percent of Uganda’s total export earnings are derived from coffee exports.
The Ugandan coffee industry is facing some serious challenges. International coffee prices have been on the decline for many years, but have been rising for the last five years. Coffee exports do not show signs of an immediate recovery . For the second quarter, the average unit price dropped further to US$ 0.62 per kilogram, down from an already meager US$ 0.72 per kilogram realized over the first quarter. Since exported volumes of 1.34 million 60kg bags were similarly below programmed levels of 1.81 million bags, total foreign exchange earned from coffee amounted to US$ 54.5 million against an originally programmed level of US$ 119.7 million. This constitutes a drop of more than 50 per cent compared to the same period one year ago. More recently, the industry has been hit by coffee-wilt disease (CWD).
1.3 Objectives of the study
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of this study will be to find the impact of coffee wilt disease on the rural livelihoods.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
Ø To establish the level of incidence of the coffee wilt disease estimated by the cumulative total trees loss per farmer up to 2008.
1.4 Research questions
- What causes the coffee wilt disease?
- What are the effects of the coffee wilt disease to coffee?
- What role is played by coffee on rural livelihoods?
- What is the impact of the coffee wilt disease on the rural areas of Uganda?
1.5 Significance of the study
- The study will be useful to agricultural officers and other stakeholders on sensitizing the communities and coming up with solutions to the coffee wilt disease recommendations from the study shall be of use here.
- The study will give farmers ideas on how to cope with the effects of the coffee wilt disease as various recommendations will be generated by the study.
- The research will also be helpful to the researcher as he will acquire in-depth knowledge in the area of research and as well have details about the area of study.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Coffee growing in Uganda
The economy of Uganda is based on agriculture, with more than 90% of exports being agricultural products. Despite continuous price fluctuations in the world coffee markets, coffee cultivation have remained a viable means of livelihood for the people of Uganda. Coffee provides employment to over 2.5 million people who are involved ion its cultivation, processing and trading. An estimated 270,000ha of Uganda’s farm land were dedicated to robusta coffee production prior to the appearance of the wilt disease in the early 1990s. two species of coffee are cultivated in Uganda: coffea canephora pierre (robusta) and C. Arabica, L. (Arabica), with robusta making up 90% of production. Until the appearance of coffee wilt disease (CWD) in 1993, robusta coffee was subject only to minor diseases. Coffee wilt disease is a vascular wilt caused by Fusarium xylarioides Steyaert. The disease attacks plants at all stages of growth and all infected plants are killed. Symptoms include wilting, defoliation and blue-black discoloration of the vascular tissue. Coffee berries on diseased plants ripen prematurely and can have brown sunken lesions at the stalk end. Perithecia form readily in the cracks of the stem bark.
Coffee wilt has spread to all robusta growing districts in Uganda, killing an estimated 14 million trees. Currently, the only methods of control are improved crop management strategies together with sanitary measures but these methods do not offer effective disease control and are expensive and impractical to implement.
2.2 The Coffee Wilt Disease
The coffee wilt disease (CWD), scientifically known as Tracheomycosis, is caused by a fungus that blocks water and nutrients from traveling to other parts of the coffee plant from the roots, in turn causing wilting and eventually death. The disease, which affects only robusta varieties, was first reported in the Central Africa Republic in 1927.
Between 1944 and 1950 it spread to Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, and Cameroon. It last recurred in
Eastern Congo (DRC) between 1988 and the early 1990s from where it is believed to have spread to Uganda. Belgian researchers who worked on the disease in DRC recommended eradication through the destruction of affected coffee trees. Subsequently, a regional working group was established and outlined an action plan but the parastatals in charge of coffee marketing in the region did not act.
The disease affects coffee plants of any age and spreads by wind, water, movement of infected soil, movement of material from infected fields (for example firewood), and use of contaminated tools. These findings are consistent with the way the disease spread during the earlier outbreaks in DRC and West Africa. Control measures currently in use aim at reducing the disease spread through burning infected coffee trees on site, delaying replanting at least by one to two seasons, and restricting movement of infected material and soil.
The wilt disease, which was first confirmed in Uganda in 1993, has been monitored through field reports and numerous scientific surveys. The disease was the subject of a workshop (hosted by the Government of Uganda in July 1997), attended by 60 participants from most East and Central Africa coffee producing countries. The workshop’s resolutions were: (i) immediate action should be taken to contain the disease; (ii) a project proposal should be presented to the International Coffee Organization and the European Union for funding; and (iii) Uganda and DRC should take the lead in the investigations. In terms of research, however, it appears that no immediate progress was made. A few years later, for example, it was noted that “Research work will be intensified to develop a resistant coffee cultivar. Epidemiological study results on the disease will also be made available to farmers.” The latest UCDA survey confirmed that all robusta producing districts have been affected by the disease. In some cases entire coffee fields have been destroyed. Although precise estimates on the impact of the disease are not available, one can gauge the effects of the disease based on the 2003 review study which estimated that of the total of 240,000 hectares in all 21 robusta- growing (traditional) districts, 122,400 hectares have been infected (equivalent to about 136 million robusta trees), representing a 51 percent cumulative infection rate. There is considerable variation among districts with infection rates ranging from a low of 12 percent (Rakai) to a high of 67.2 percent (Mukono, the district accounting for 22 percent of Uganda’s robusta area).
The impact of the coffee disease is enormous. UCDA estimated a loss equivalent to 61,200 tons (1.02 million bags) of coffee, which is around 40 percent of the output in recent years. This corresponds to $42.8 million in export revenue loss per annum at 2003/04 prices (Ush 1,090/kg).
Under different assumptions regarding production (88,240 tons) and prices (Ush 1,200/kg), the
Uganda Coffee Trade Federation (UCTF) put the annual losses at $51 million. Note that the wilt disease had been identified as the key problem of Uganda’s coffee industry by Ponte (2002, p. 260): “Uganda’s falling production and changing roaster’s blends may marginalize it in the future vis-à-vis cheaper origins, unless coffee wilt disease is tackled.” Obviously, the only long-term solution is the development of wilt disease-resistant coffee varieties.
Although some progress has been made towards that end, details are still unclear. For example, UCDA reports that: “Steady progress has been made in the development of robusta coffee lines resistant to the disease. (A) sustained screening program has to date identified 593 coffee wilt resistant robusta coffee clones. These were identified among seedlings of germplasm collection at Coffee Research Institute and have been planted in mother gardens. 143 out of the 593 have been planted out in-station in a CWD infected garden for field evaluation.” It is not clear, however, how many of these varieties will withstand the disease in infected areas.
Furthermore, even under the assumption of complete success, producing plantlets in large quantities and finding effective ways to distribute them to coffee growers will be a monumental task, especially in view of the limitations of the existing replanting program.
Aging coffee trees are another problem, because they are less productive. It is estimated that about 120 million (44.5 percent) of Uganda’s Robusta coffee trees have been destroyed by CWD (a loss of about 78,000 metric tons (mt) of coffee per year) and more than 70 percent of the remaining trees are more than 40 years old (UCTF 2005). Together, these problems threaten the long-term viability of the industry. In the last five years, between the 1998/99 and 2003/04 seasons, the quantity and value of coffee exports declined by an average of 6.6 percent and 12.6 percent per year, respectively, although the value of coffee exports has been increasing since 2001. Coffee used to be the leading earner of foreign exchange until recently when it was overtaken by other export commodities.
2.3 Role played by coffee in the Uganda’s economy
Uganda is currently the largest producer of robusta coffee in Africa but as the disease continues to spread combined with unusually dry weather during the dry season, exports have recently fallen by 20%. Coffee provides an important source of income to the 500,000 small holder farmers who traditionally intercrop it with food crops, such as bananas, beans, groundnuts and shade trees. According to UCDA figures, nearly 5 million people depend on the coffee sector for direct and indirect employment. With the continued spread of the disease affecting yields and falling market prices, there is cause for concerned that the decline in the coffee sector will have serious repercussions on the Ugandan economy.
2.4 Impact of the disease on the rural livelihoods
The CORNET study estimated the impact of the disease in Uganda on yield loss to be in excess of 350 kg/ha/year and an economic loss of US$231.6 /ha/year of coffee exported. These figures point to substantial potential impacts of CWD on livelihoods in Uganda, as robusta coffee accounts for 85-90% of total coffee production. In 2003/04, for example, it accounted for about 79% and 71% of total quantity and value of coffee exported respectively (UCTF, 2005). The development of wilt resistant varieties is critical for the survival of the coffee industry, as well as for improving and sustaining the livelihoods of many people who depend on the coffee sub sector. This is true not only for Uganda but also for other countries affected by the disease. The study is thus intended to establish the effects of the coffee wilt disease on the quality of life of the rural livelihoods and how the situation can be improved.
It is estimated that about 120 million (44.5%) of Uganda’s robusta coffee trees have been destroyed by CWD (a loss of about 78,000 metric tones of coffee/year) and more than 70% of the remaining trees are more than 40 years old(UCTF, 2005). Together, these problems threaten the long term viability of the industry. In the last five years, between the 1998/99 and 2003/04 seasons, the quality and value of coffee exports declines\d by an average of 6.6% and 12.6% per year respectively, although the value of coffee exports has been increasing since 2001. Coffee used to be the leading earner of foreign exchange until recently when it was overtaken by other export commodities. This means many rural farmers have lost out on substantial incomes and thus a huge decline on their economic welfare.
According to UCTF, all the traditional robusta growing areas in Uganda have been affected by the disease and it is estimated that about 120 million robusta coffee trees have died due to the disease (UCTF, 2005). This represents about 44.5% of the total robusta coffee trees and a loss in foreign exchange of at least US$59.63 million per year.
2.5 Measures taken to manage the situation
In the face of this threat, the Ugandan government has intensified efforts towards the containment of the disease through breeding and provision of free, clean planting materials. For example, the managing director of UCDA, Henry Ngabirano has reported that some indigenous robusta trees grown in Bundibugyo in south western Uganda have developed natural resistance to the wilt. These will be used in a 5 year research programme in the development of disease resistant varieties. In addition, 1 billion Uganda shillings (US$571428) has been provided by the government to UCDA to buy disease free coffee plantlets from private nursery operator for distribution to farmers. The ministry for agriculture, animal industry and fisheries is also committed to regulating movement of coffee plants and harvested beans and is encouraging farmers to improve crop husbandry.
During the 1993/94 coffee season, the government of Uganda under the UCDA embarked on a replanting program. They bought coffee seedlings and distributed them free to farmers. The program has three objectives: replace old coffee trees and those affected by the disease, introducing coffee growing to new areas in northern and eastern Uganda and increase Arabica coffee production to 20% by 2006 (UCTF, 2005).
Between 1993/94 and 2003/04 seasons, UCDA purchased and distributed a 125 million coffee seedlings to coffee farmers. About 25% of the seedlings distributed to farmers are Arabica. Of the remaining 75% of robusta seedlings, about 20% are the CWD resistant clonal type and the other 80% (60% overall) are traditional robusta. Not surprisingly, some of the newly planted coffee trees have also been attacked by the disease (Baffes, 2006; UCTF, 2005). The production of high quality seedlings by nurseries and proper farm management practices by farmers with help from support services such as extension agents- are critical for ensuring high survival rates of the seedlings. A UCDA official put the seedling survival rate at 80%, which is higher than the 50-60% rate quoted by Baffes (2006).
Nevertheless, with a less than 100% survival rate of the newly planted seedlings and the need to replace the 120 million trees destroyed by CWD plus the remaining stock of trees that are very old (40 years of age and above), it is feared that the distribution so far of 125 million trees fall short of what is needed to get the sub sector back to its pre-CWD production and export performance level. Given the introduction of the CWD resistant and higher yielding clonal type, however, this fear need not necessarily materialize. In the next section, we present a conceptual and empirical approach to assessing the benefit-cost ratio of the clonal coffee replanting program.
Research and development in Uganda to improve coffee production, including the selection and breeding work on robusta coffee that resulted in the clonal varieties, dates back more than 100 years in research facilities but it was not until the 1980s that clonal coffee was introduced at the farm level (Sserunkuma, 1999). The Ugandan coffee research institute (CORI), under the National Agricultural Research system is responsible for carrying out research on coffee in particular developing wilt resistant robusta varieties. Research is also underway to develop wilt resistant Arabica varieties for planting in lowland areas, which traditionally grow robusta coffee with one variety popularly known as Tuza now being tested in Bushenyi, Rukungiri and Ibanda districts (New vision, 2007) Arabica is resistant to CWD in Uganda and it also fetches a higher price than Robusta.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sources and nature of data that will be used
Primary sources will be used and data will be collected using both interviews and questionnaires. Also secondary data sources will be used to supplement the data that will be collected from the primary sources. A survey on indigenous chicken will be conducted in all the counties of Masaka district, using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire will mainly capture information on the physical environment, the production environment, the management system, flock structures, main uses, performance and phenotypic characteristics.
3.2 Research design
A cross sectional research design will be used given the nature of small coffee farmer settlements. This will be combined with descriptive and analytical research designs based on the results from the questionnaires and interviews.
3.3 Study population
The target population of the study will constitute of 50 coffee farmers in Kasawo Sub County, Mukono district. The agricultural extension officers in the area will also be consulted along the study.
3.4 Study area
The district of Mukono was chosen as a sample district. This was purposively chosen because it is among the districts to have been affected by the disease. it also contributes a large share of coffee produced in Uganda.
3.5 Research variables
The independent variable is coffee wilt disease, while the dependent variable is it’s impact on rural livelihoods.
3.6 Data collection instruments
These will include:
a) Questionnaires (Semi structured).
This method is;
i) Convenient because it provides the respondents with ample time to think and respond to the questions.
ii) The respondent will also be free and frank in as far as provision of sensitive information is concerned.
iii) Enough information will be collected within a short period of time.
b) Face to face (guided interviews )
This will be used because;
i) Researcher will have time to repeat questions to ensure that respondents have got their meaning.
ii) They are flexible, questions can be reframed for clear understanding by respondents
iii) Information can be got from those who cannot read and write
3.7 Data processing and analysis
The data that will be collected by the research instrument will be edited, coded, and reviewed for accuracy, consistence and completeness and entered into the computer using an appropriate package. Tables and charts will be used in summarizing the data. A number of data analysis methods will be used depending on the data characteristics. In this study, mainly SPSS (10) for windows statistical packages will be used to analyze the data.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the researcher endeavors to assess the data collected in respect to the impact of coffee wilt diseases on the rural livelihoods, a case of Kasawo Sub County, Mukono district. Selected households were interviewed to seek their opinions on the subject of study. Secondary data was obtained from different literature sources such as agriculture reports, magazines, text books, newspapers and the internet among others.
4.2 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
4.2.1 Gender and marital statistics
Study findings show that majority of the respondents were females accounting for 55% as compared to the males with 45%. The majority of the respondents were married (65%). Of those, 70% had children. Others were still single and divorced among other categories. Other variables of interest included age and education, as explained below:
4.2.2 Age statistics of the respondents
Statistics collected indicated that the majority of the interviewees were aged 31 years and above, details follow in the table below:
Table 1: Age statistics
| Age bracket | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
| 20-30 | 08 | 16 |
| 31-40 | 20 | 40 |
| 41-50 | 20 | 40 |
| 50 years and above | 02 | 04 |
| Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Results in table 2, show that majority of the respondents were aged between 31-50 years, accounting for 65%, while 20-30 years and 50 years and above had 25% and 10% respectively.
4.2.3 Education and occupation of the respondents
The education level data indicate that most of the households held certificates, diplomas and degrees (52%), while the others interviewed held no certificate (48%). The chief occupation of the respondents was farming.
The majority of the respondents (90%) had children in their households, both biological and dependants. Only 10% had no children. The number of children in different households varies from 1 to 10. Some few families had 15 and more. Details about the number of children are in the table below:
Table 2: Number of children held in households
| Number of children | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
| 1 - 2 | 8 | 16 |
| 3 – 4 | 35 | 70 |
| 5 – above | 7 | 14 |
| Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
From the table, the majority (70%) have 3 – 4 children both biological and dependants. 16% of the respondents have children aged 3 -4 years while only 14% had children 5 and more in number. It was also acknowledged that all the children are in school. This they attributed it to the universal education in place. 40% of the respondents had children in boarding schools.
4.3 Coffee production system
In order to assess the coffee production system, the researcher sought information from the respondents on: total area under coffee, cropping system, intercrops, acquisition of coffee shamba, sources of planting materials, source of labour, problems in coffee farming, control of weeds and the type of manure used. The findings are discussed as under:
The total area under coffee among the farmers was on average 2 – 10 acres. The cropping systems were of two types, namely pure and intercropping. Details follow in the table below:
Table 3: Cropping system
System | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Pure | 35 | 70 |
Intercropped | 15 | 30 |
Not sure | 00 | 00 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
According to the respondents, the majority (70%) practice pure cropping system of coffee growing. They argued that pure cropping enhances high productivity, 30% practice intercropping where by other crops are grown along side the coffee. None of the respondents was not sure of the system. The common intercrops cited were: bananas with coffee, maize with coffee to mention but a few.
Data on acquisition of land for growing coffee indicated inheritance and hiring as the main sources of land acquisition among the respondents. The sources of planting materials were varied, ranging between nursery source, garden volunteers and local purchases. The major sources of labour include family labour, hired labour and a combination of both as seen in the table below:
Table 4: Major sources of labour in coffee farming
Source | Frequency | Percentage (70%) |
Family | 25 | 50 |
Hiring | 15 | 30 |
Family and hired | 10 | 20 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
Most of the interviewees (50%) acknowledged that family labour was the major source of labour, followed by 30% who said that they hire while only 10% engaged both sources. It was also asserted that labour is always a problem and on high demand especially during planting and harvesting. Farmers agreed they control weeds on the farms. Labour is hired to weed manually with hand hoes or at times spraying with herbicides to suffice the weeds. This according to them is done once a month, totaling to 12 times a year.
Pruning of coffee trees is another farming practice reported by the respondents (80%) this is done at least three times in a year. Mulching is also practiced among the farmers (75%) at least four times a year. Manure is also applied in the coffee plantations. They types of manure include coffee husks, animal manure and grass mulch.
4.4 The role played by coffee on rural livelihoods
According to UNHS (2002) and Ssemwanga (2004), coffee pays an important role in the economy and livelihoods of Uganda’s rural population. The coffee industry consists of low input-intensity small holders with an average plot size of 0.2 hectares, providing the main source of income for an estimated 0.3-0.5 million households distributed over two-thirds of the country.
The researcher investigated the contribution of coffee towards rural livelihoods by examining the achievements by the farmers in terms of training, growth of incomes, acquisition of assets such as housing, furniture, sending children to school among others.
The majority of the respondents (90%) accepted that coffee farming has transformed their lives, while only 10% disagreed. “I have managed to pay my children’s fees up to university, built my big house and made a lot of savings out of coffee”, said an elderly respondent. More details are explained in the table below:
Table 5: Contribution of coffee farming
Area of contribution | Frequency | Percentage (70%) |
School dues | 30 | 60 |
Saving and investment | 10 | 20 |
Acquisition of assets | 10 | 20 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
As evident from the table above, most of the interviewees (60%) cited school dues as the biggest contribution of coffee towards their livelihoods. This was followed by 20% each mentioning savings and investment and acquisition of assets as the key areas of contribution. From the findings, it is confirmed that coffee farming is very vital on rural livelihoods in the area of study.
4.4.1 Sensitization and training of farmers
Respondents agreed that they have had organized training on good practices such as controlling weeds and diseases that undermine the production output. The training has been offered through the local councils by community based organizations such as extension agents, at leas twice a month. The training has been involving demonstrations on how to uproot the affected plants, early detection of diseases on the shamba and other control measures. Radio programmes have been run on coffee diseases such as wilt. “Training has helped me to learn good farming practices such as weed control, spraying methods, harvesting, sun drying among others”, explained Moses one of the farmers.
The progress of coffee harvest and income earned in presence of diseases such as wilt for at least one year on the average are given as under:
Table 6: Progress of coffee harvest and incomes earned
Source: Primary data
As observed in the table, the harvest output (bags/kgs) has been declining due to prolonged drought, land deterioration in fertility. The subsequent amounts fluctuate over time. The incomes from coffee production have been fluctuating following the fluctuation in production.
4.5 The level of incidence of the coffee wilt disease and pests
The coffee wilt disease was first reported in the village in 2000. Farmers took an average of two years to detect the disease. On average, over 20 trees were affected on the shamba. Since then the number of trees affected is almost 40% according to the respondents. Our 300 farmers are affected by the disease in the area of study. More details follow in the table below:
Table 7: Average progress of the disease infection on coffee shambas
Year | Total trees | Trees affected | Trees dead |
2002 | 400 | 20 | 10 |
2003 | 400 | 50 | 15 |
2004 | 400 | 80 | 30 |
2005 | 400 | 100 | 40 |
2006 | 500 | 20 | 5 |
2007 | 500 | 30 | 16 |
2008 | 500 | 20 | 12 |
Source: Primary data
From the study, the number of trees affected has been on the rise between 2002 and 2005, falling in 2006 and rising in 2007. The number of dead trees has been on the rise too. A number of infected trees have been uprooted and burnt. The increase in the incidence was attributed on the environmental factors such as hot and humid weather conditions. It was observed that the disease spreads firster in unweeded, unmulched, unprunned shambas and in coffee under shade. Responses on this factor are summarized in the figure below:
Figure 1: A pie chart showing the most affected garden by the wilt disease
Source: Primary data
It was acknowledged by the majority (40%) that failure to weed the coffee plantations is the main cause of coffee wilt disease, 35% suggested failure to mulch , 20% claimed that failure to prune while 5% gave growing coffee under shades.
4.5.1 Pests and disease incidence
A number of pests affect the coffee shambas as well, and their incidence has been high. The estimated loss in harvest due to these pests and diseases was estimated at 40% per garden, per harvest. These pests have been controlled through use of chemicals and cultural methods.
Other control methods to minimize disease spread include: uprooting and burning of the infected plants, cutting stems and burning them among others. In addition, tools sterilization and restricted movement of affected plant parts are other control methods. It was however noted that uprooting and burning are expensive thus farmers end up applying other prevention and control methods. Cutting and burning is less costly compared to uprooting.
4.6 Optimal replanting and diversification requirements at farm level
Given the presence of coffee wilt disease, respondents were asked to suggest the survival mechanisms they have adopted to cope up with the situation. They suggested replanting with clonal coffee, growing other crops, off farm activities to mention but a few. Their responses are given in the table below:
Table 8: Survival mechanisms in the presence of wilt disease.
Method | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Replanting colonal coffee | 25 | 50 |
Growing other crops | 15 | 30 |
Off farm activities | 5 | 10 |
Others | 5 | 10 |
Total | 50 | 100 |
Source: Primary data
The majority of the respondents (50%), replant colonal coffee as a way of controlling the coffee wilt effect, other farmers (30%) grow other crops, while 10% venture into off farm activities and 5% resort to other activities. The researcher confirmed that replanting is the most common practice among farmers. The respondents agreed that colonal coffee is available in the local area and priced at 1200 per seedling. They lamented that this price is not generally affordable by the majority of the farmers. Farmers would afford a price of around 800 since the coffee price is very low.
Some respondents suggested that their wish to replace all the infected trees gradually or at once. They had however, replaced on average 50% of their plantations. The seedlings are obtained from the sub county, after buying them. At times they obtain free seedlings from well wishers.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter involves the summary of the results presented in the previous chapter. It also presents the conclusion and recommendations for future action, in respect to the findings from the study area.
5.2 Summary of study findings
5.2.1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents
Gender and marital statistics
Study findings show that majority of the respondents were females accounting for 55% as compared to the males with 45%. The majority of the respondents were married (65%). Of those, 70% had children. Others were still single and divorced among other categories. Other variables of interest included age and education.
Age statistics of the respondents
Statistics collected indicated that the majority of the interviewees were aged 31 years and
above. Majority of the respondents were aged between 31-50 years, accounting for 65%.
Education and occupation of the respondents
The education level data indicate that most of the households held certificates, diplomas and degrees (52%), while the others interviewed held no certificate (48%). The chief occupation of the respondents was farming.
The majority of the respondents (90%) had children in their households, both biological and dependants. Only 10% had no children. The number of children in different households varies from 1 to 10. Some few families had 15 and more. The majority (70%) have 3 – 4 children both biological and dependants. 16% of the respondents have children aged 3 -4 years while only 14% had children 5 and more in number. It was also acknowledged that all the children are in school. This they attributed it to the universal education in place. 40% of the respondents had children in boarding schools.
5.2.2 Coffee production system
In order to assess the coffee production system, the researcher sought information from the respondents on: total area under coffee, cropping system, intercrops, acquisition of coffee shamba, sources of planting materials, source of labour, problems in coffee farming, control of weeds and the type of manure used. The findings are discussed as under:
The total area under coffee among the farmers was on average 2 – 10 acres. The cropping systems were of two types, namely pure and intercropping.
According to the respondents, the majority (70%) practice pure cropping system of coffee growing. They argued that pure cropping enhances high productivity, 30% practice intercropping where by other crops are grown along side the coffee. The common intercrops cited were: bananas with coffee, maize with coffee to mention but a few.
Data on acquisition of land for growing coffee indicated inheritance and hiring as the main sources of land acquisition among the respondents. The sources of planting materials were varied, ranging between nursery source, garden volunteers and local purchases. The major sources of labour include family labour, hired labour and a combination of both.
Most of the interviewees (50%) acknowledged that family labour was the major source of labour, followed by 30% who said that they hire while only 10% engaged both sources. It was also asserted that labour is always a problem and on high demand especially during planting and harvesting. Farmers agreed they control weeds on the farms. Labour is hired to weed manually with hand hoes or at times spraying with herbicides to suffice the weeds. This according to them is done once a month, totaling to 12 times a year.
Pruning of coffee trees is another farming practice reported by the respondents (80%) this is done at least three times in a year. Mulching is also practiced among the farmers (75%) at least four times a year. Manure is also applied in the coffee plantations. They types of manure include coffee husks, animal manure and grass mulch.
5.2.3 The role played by coffee on rural livelihoods
According to UNHS (2002) and Ssemwanga (2004), coffee pays an important role in the economy and livelihoods of Uganda’s rural population. The coffee industry consists of low input-intensity small holders with an average plot size of 0.2 hectares, providing the main source of income for an estimated 0.3-0.5 million households distributed over two-thirds of the country.
The researcher investigated the contribution of coffee towards rural livelihoods by examining the achievements by the farmers in terms of training, growth of incomes, acquisition of assets such as housing, furniture, sending children to school among others.
The majority of the respondents (90%) accepted that coffee farming has transformed their lives, while only 10% disagreed. Most of the interviewees (60%) cited school dues as the biggest contribution of coffee towards their livelihoods. This was followed by 20% each mentioning savings and investment and acquisition of assets as the key areas of contribution. From the findings, it is confirmed that coffee farming is very vital on rural livelihoods in the area of study.
5.2.4 Sensitization and training of farmers
Respondents agreed that they have had organized training on good practices such as controlling weeds and diseases that undermine the production output. The training has been offered through the local councils by community based organizations such as extension agents, at leas twice a month. The training has been involving demonstrations on how to uproot the affected plants, early detection of diseases on the shamba and other control measures. Radio programmes have been run on coffee diseases such as wilt. “Training has helped me to learn good farming practices such as weed control, spraying methods, harvesting, sun drying among others”, explained Moses one of the farmers.
The harvest output (bags/kgs) has been declining due to prolonged drought, land deterioration in fertility. The subsequent amounts fluctuate over time. The incomes from coffee production have been fluctuating following the fluctuation in production.
5.2.5 The level of incidence of the coffee wilt disease and pests
The coffee wilt disease was first reported in the village in 2000. Farmers took an average of two years to detect the disease. On average, over 20 trees were affected on the shamba. Since then the number of trees affected is almost 40% according to the respondents. Our 300 farmers are affected by the disease in the area of study.
From the study, the number of trees affected has been on the rise between 2002 and 2005, falling in 2006 and rising in 2007. The number of dead trees has been on the rise too. A number of infected trees have been uprooted and burnt. The increase in the incidence was attributed on the environmental factors such as hot and humid weather conditions. It was observed that the disease spreads faster in unweeded, unmulched, unprunned shambas and in coffee under shade. It was acknowledged by the majority (40%) that failure to weed the coffee plantations is the main cause of coffee wilt disease, 35% suggested failure to mulch , 20% claimed that failure to prune while 5% gave growing coffee under shades.
5.2.6 Pests and disease incidence
A number of pests affect the coffee shambas as well, and their incidence has been high. The estimated loss in harvest due to these pests and diseases was estimated at 40% per garden, per harvest. These pests have been controlled through use of chemicals and cultural methods.
Other control methods to minimize disease spread include: uprooting and burning of the infected plants, cutting stems and burning them among others. In addition, tools sterilization and restricted movement of affected plant parts are other control methods. It was however noted that uprooting and burning are expensive thus farmers end up applying other prevention and control methods. Cutting and burning is less costly compared to uprooting.
5.2.7 Optimal replanting and diversification requirements at farm level
Given the presence of coffee wilt disease, respondents were asked to suggest the survival mechanisms they have adopted to cope up with the situation. They suggested replanting with clonal coffee, growing other crops, off farm activities to mention but a few. The majority of the respondents (50%), replant colonal coffee as a way of controlling the coffee wilt effect, other farmers (30%) grow other crops, while 10% venture into off farm activities and 5% resort to other activities. The researcher confirmed that replanting is the most common practice among farmers. The respondents agreed that colonal coffee is available in the local area and priced at 1200 per seedling. They lamented that this price is not generally affordable by the majority of the farmers. Farmers would afford a price of around 800 since the coffee price is very low.
Some respondents suggested that their wish to replace all the infected trees gradually or at once. They had however, replaced on average 50% of their plantations. The seedlings are obtained from the sub county, after buying them. At times they obtain free seedlings from well wishers.
5.3 Conclusion
Study findings indicate that coffee wilt disease is on the rise and poses a big threat among the farmers in the area of study. It was established that coffee growing plays an important role towards the rural livelihoods, as it forms the basis of income for the majority. Pests and diseases are checked through good practices such as cutting and burning of the infected trees, pruning, weeding, spraying among others are some of the methods in use.
5.4 Recommendations
The researcher came up with the following policy recommendations:
Farmers should be taught the modern farming practices. This will enable them discover the most efficient farming methods and to also identify the best control measures. The training can be channeled to them through the local councils.
Further scientific research should be carried out by the ministry of Agriculture to expose the coffee wilt problem and come up with new methods of controlling it.
Coffee prices should be revised upwards to encourage more farmers to venture into coffee growing. They will also be able to buy all the necessary in puts to enrich their productivity.
